Egypt

It is a Republic, a Democratic Political System Based on Citizenship, which entrusts power to the three Legislative, Executive and Judicial Branches and which also includes the press, political parties, local administrations and institutions of civil society. The Official Religion Is Islam. The majority of non-Muslims in Egypt are Christians, most of them belonging to the Coptic Orthodox Church. Egypt Is Divided Into 28 Independent Administrative Units (Governorates) Which Have Their Own Legal Personality. Each of them is made up of towns and cities
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History of Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt, civilization in northeastern Africa that dates from the 4th millennium BCE. Its many achievements, preserved in its art and monuments, hold a fascination that continues to grow as archaeological finds expose its secrets. This article focuses on Egypt from its prehistory through its unification under Menes (Narmer) in the 3rd millennium BCE—sometimes used as a reference point for Egypt’s origin—and up to the Islamic conquest in the 7th century CE. For subsequent history through the contemporary period.
For almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.—ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of the New Kingdom, Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and historians and created a vibrant field of study all its own: Egyptology. The main sources of information about ancient Egypt are the many monuments, objects and artifacts that have been recovered from archaeological sites, covered with hieroglyphs that have only recently been deciphered. The picture that emerges is of a culture with few equals in the beauty of its art, the accomplishment of its architecture or the richness of its religious traditions.
Predynastic Period (c. 5000-3100 B.C.)
Few written records or artifacts have been found from the Predynastic Period, which encompassed at least 2,000 years of gradual development of the Egyptian civilization.
Neolithic (late Stone Age) communities in northeastern Africa exchanged hunting for agriculture and made early advances that paved the way for the later development of Egyptian arts and crafts, technology, politics and religion (including a great reverence for the dead and possibly a belief in life after death). Around 3400 B.C., two separate kingdoms were established near the Fertile Crescent, an area home to some of the world’s oldest civilizations: the Red Land to the north, based in the Nile River Delta and extending along the Nile perhaps to Atfih; and the White Land in the south, stretching from Atfih to Gebel es-Silsila. A southern king, Scorpion, made the first attempts to conquer the northern kingdom around 3200 B.C. A century later, King Menes would subdue the north and unify the country, becoming the first king of the first dynasty.
Archaic (Early Dynastic) Period (c. 3100-2686 B.C.)
King Menes founded the capital of ancient Egypt at White Walls (later known as Memphis), in the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. The capital would grow into a great metropolis that dominated Egyptian society during the Old Kingdom period. The Archaic Period saw the development of the foundations of Egyptian society, including the all-important ideology of kingship. To the ancient Egyptians, the king was a godlike being, closely identified with the all-powerful god Horus. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing also dates to this period. In the Archaic Period, as in all other periods, most ancient Egyptians were farmers living in small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the great Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year; farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it before the season of high temperatures and drought returned.
Old Kingdom: Age of the Pyramid Builders (c. 2686-2181 B.C.)
The Old Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 B.C., the third dynasty’s King Djoser asked Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, to design a funerary monument for him; the result was the world’s first major stone building, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, near Memphis. Egyptian pyramid-building reached its zenith with the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Built for Khufu (or Cheops, in Greek), who ruled from 2589 to 2566 B.C., the pyramid was later named by classical historians as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus estimated that it took 100,00 men 20 years to build it. Two other pyramids were built at Giza for Khufu’s successors Khafra (2558-2532 B.C) and Menkaura (2532-2503 B.C.).
During the third and fourth dynasties, Egypt enjoyed a golden age of peace and prosperity. The pharaohs held absolute power and provided a stable central government; the kingdom faced no serious threats from abroad; and successful military campaigns in foreign countries like Nubia and Libya added to its considerable economic prosperity. Over the course of the fifth and sixth dynasties, the king’s wealth was steadily depleted, partially due to the huge expense of pyramid-building, and his absolute power faltered in the face of the growing influence of the nobility and the priesthood that grew up around the sun god Ra (Re). After the death of the sixth dynasty’s King Pepy II, who ruled for some 94 years, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.
First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 B.C.)
On the heels of the Old Kingdom’s collapse, the seventh and eighth dynasties consisted of a rapid succession of Memphis-based rulers until about 2160 B.C., when the central authority completely dissolved, leading to civil war between provincial governors. This chaotic situation was intensified by Bedouin invasions and accompanied by famine and disease.
From this era of conflict emerged two different kingdoms: A line of 17 rulers (dynasties nine and 10) based in Heracleopolis ruled Middle Egypt between Memphis and Thebes, while another family of rulers arose in Thebes to challenge Heracleopolitan power. Around 2055 B.C., the Theban prince Mentuhotep managed to topple Heracleopolis and reunited Egypt, beginning the 11th dynasty and ending the First Intermediate Period.
Middle Kingdom: 12th Dynasty (c. 2055-1786 B.C.)
After the last ruler of the 11th dynasty, Mentuhotep IV, was assassinated, the throne passed to his vizier, or chief minister, who became King Amenemhet I, founder of dynasty 12. A new capital was established at It-towy, south of Memphis, while Thebes remained a great religious center. During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt once again flourished, as it had during the Old Kingdom. The 12th dynasty kings ensured the smooth succession of their line by making each successor co-regent, a custom that began with Amenemhet I.
Middle-Kingdom Egypt pursued an aggressive foreign policy, colonizing Nubia (with its rich supply of gold, ebony, ivory and other resources) and repelling the Bedouins who had infiltrated Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. The kingdom also built diplomatic and trade relations with other countries; undertook building projects including military fortresses and mining quarries; and returned to pyramid-building in the tradition of the Old Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom reached its peak under Amenemhet III (1842-1797 B.C.); its decline began under Amenenhet IV (1798-1790 B.C.) and continued under his sister and regent, Queen Sobekneferu (1789-1786 B.C.), who was the first confirmed female ruler of Egypt and the last ruler of the 12th dynasty.
Second Intermediate Period (c. 1786-1567 B.C.)
The 13th dynasty marked the beginning of another unsettled period in Egyptian history, during which a rapid succession of kings failed to consolidate power. As a consequence, during the Second Intermediate Period Egypt was divided into several spheres of influence. The official royal court and seat of government was relocated to Thebes, while a rival dynasty (the 14th), centered on the city of Xois in the Nile delta, seems to have existed at the same time as the 13th.
Around 1650 B.C., a line of foreign rulers known as the Hyksos took advantage of Egypt’s instability to take control. The Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty adopted and continued many of the existing Egyptian traditions in government as well as culture. They ruled concurrently with the line of native Theban rulers of the 17th dynasty, who retained control over most of southern Egypt despite having to pay taxes to the Hyksos. (The 16th dynasty is variously believed to be Theban or Hyksos rulers.) Conflict eventually flared between the two groups, and the Thebans launched a war against the Hyksos around 1570 B.C., driving them out of Egypt.
New Kingdom (c. 1567-1085 B.C.)
Under Ahmose I, the first king of the 18th dynasty, Egypt was once again reunited. During the 18th dynasty, Egypt restored its control over Nubia and began military campaigns in , clashing with other powers in the area such as the Mitannians and the Hittites. The country went on to establish the world’s first great empire, stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River in Asia. In addition to powerful kings such as Amenhotep I (1546-1526 B.C.), Thutmose I (1525-1512 B.C.) and Amenhotep III (1417-1379 B.C.), the New Kingdom was notable for the role of royal women such as Queen Hatshepsut (1503-1482 B.C.), who began ruling as a regent for her young stepson (he later became Thutmose III, Egypt’s greatest military hero), but rose to wield all the powers of a pharaoh.
The controversial Amenhotep IV (c. 1379-1362), of the late 18th dynasty, undertook a religious revolution, disbanding the priesthoods dedicated to Amon-Re (a combination of the local Theban god Amon and the sun god Re) and forcing the exclusive worship of another sun-god, Aton. Renaming himself Akhenaton (“servant of the Aton”), he built a new capital in Middle Egypt called Akhetaton, known later as Amarna. Upon Akhenaton’s death, the capital returned to Thebes and Egyptians returned to worshiping a multitude of gods. The 19th and 20th dynasties, known as the Ramesside period (for the line of kings named Ramses) saw the restoration of the weakened Egyptian empire and an impressive amount of building, including great temples and cities. According to biblical chronology, the exodus of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt possibly occurred during the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.).
All of the New Kingdom rulers (with the exception of Akhenaton) were laid to rest in deep, rock-cut tombs (not pyramids) in the Valley of the Kings, a burial site on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes. Most of them were raided and destroyed, with the exception of the tomb and treasure of Tutankhamen (c.1361-1352 B.C.), discovered largely intact in A.D. 1922. The splendid mortuary temple of the last great king of the 20th dynasty, Ramses III (c. 1187-1156 B.C.), was also relatively well preserved, and indicated the prosperity Egypt still enjoyed during his reign. The kings who followed Ramses III were less successful: Egypt lost its provinces in Palestine and Syria for good and suffered from foreign invasions (notably by the Libyans), while its wealth was being steadily but inevitably depleted.
Third Intermediate Period (c. 1085-664 B.C.)
The next 400 years–known as the Third Intermediate Period–saw important changes in Egyptian politics, society and culture. Centralized government under the 21st dynasty pharaohs gave way to the resurgence of local officials, while foreigners from Libya and Nubia grabbed power for themselves and left a lasting imprint on Egypt’s population. The 22nd dynasty began around 945 B.C. with King Sheshonq, a descendant of Libyans who had invaded Egypt during the late 20th dynasty and settled there. Many local rulers were virtually autonomous during this period and dynasties 23-24 are poorly documented.
In the eighth century B.C., Nubian pharaohs beginning with Shabako, ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Kush, established their own dynasty–the 25th–at Thebes. Under Kushite rule, Egypt clashed with the growing Assyrian empire. In 671 B.C., the Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon drove the Kushite king Taharka out of Memphis and destroyed the city; he then appointed his own rulers out of local governors and officials loyal to the Assyrians. One of them, Necho of Sais, ruled briefly as the first king of the 26th dynasty before being killed by the Kushite leader Tanuatamun, in a final, unsuccessful grab for power.
From the Late Period to Alexander’s Conquest (c.664-332 B.C.)
Beginning with Necho’s son, Psammetichus, the Saite dynasty ruled a reunified Egypt for less than two centuries. In 525 B.C., Cambyses, king of Persia, defeated Psammetichus III, the last Saite king, at the Battle of Pelusium, and Egypt became part of the . Persian rulers such as Darius (522-485 B.C.) ruled the country largely under the same terms as native Egyptian kings: Darius supported Egypt’s religious cults and undertook the building and restoration of its temples. The tyrannical rule of Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) sparked increased uprisings under him and his successors. One of these rebellions triumphed in 404 B.C., beginning one last period of Egyptian independence under native rulers (dynasties 28-30).
In the mid-fourth century B.C., the Persians again attacked Egypt, reviving their empire under Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C. Barely a decade later, in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated the armies of the Persian Empire and conquered Egypt. After Alexander’s death, Egypt was ruled by a line of Macedonian kings, beginning with Alexander’s general Ptolemy and continuing with his descendants. The last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt–the legendary Cleopatra VII–surrendered Egypt to the armies of Octavian (later Augustus) in 31 B.C. Six centuries of Roman rule followed, during which Christianity became the official religion of Rome and the Roman Empire’s provinces (including Egypt). The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in the seventh century A.D. and the introduction of Islam would do away with the last outward aspects of ancient Egyptian culture and propel the country towards its modern incarnation.
Byzantine Rule
The arrival of Islam in Egypt was very well-time. Egypt had only recently been reclaimed by the Byzantine Empire after briefly being conquered by the Persian Sassanid Empire. Additionally, the Egyptian Coptic Christian majority was suffering persecution under their Byzantine governors due to a theological disagreement between the Coptic Church and the Byzantines.
The zeal of the Byzantines to stamp out this divergent theology in Egypt made it easy for the Egyptian Christians to accept the Muslim conquest, given that the Rashidun Caliphate asked only that non-Muslims in conquered lands pay a tax in return for exemption from military service in the Rashidun army.
Early Islamic Period
A 4,000 army were sent into Egypt by the muslims Khalifa Omar under the commander Amr Ibn Al-Aas in 639, another 5,000 army joined in 640 and conquered the Byzantine army at Heliopolis battle.then Amr continued to Alexandria then, the Byzantine army surrendered to him by a treaty signed in Nov.941. A series of wars proceed in the following years from 941 - 946 lead to the regain of alexandria to Byzantine empire in 645 before the muslims re-takeovr authority in 946. Again in 654 another invasion was sent by Constans the second to regain alexandria, from that time no another trial was made to take over the possession of the country.
Following the first surrender of Alexandria, Amr chose a new site to settle his men near the Byzantine Fortress of Babylon, the new settlement received the name of Fustat.. Both the ruins of this fort and the site of the mosque itself can still be visited today in Coptic Cairo (Old Cairo). Egypt has remained under the control of various Muslim governments up until the modern era. The Rashidun Caliphate gave way to the Umayyad Caliphate, which was based in Damascus.
Umayyad period
The Umayyad Caliphate was one the most powerful Islamic caliphates in the islamic regime through the different Islamic dynasties. Thus, the leader of the state called the caliph which also was the son of the precious caliph.
The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the Islamic Empire from 661-750 CE. It succeeded the Rashidun Caliphate when Muawiyah I became Caliph after the First Muslim Civil War. Muawiyah I established his capital in the city of Damascus where the Umayyads would rule the Islamic Empire for nearly 100 years. The Umayyad Caliphate was brought to an end in 750 CE when the Abbasids took control.
The Umayyad Caliphate take over the islamic Empire from 661-750 CE. it started when Muawiyah became Caliph after the first Muslim civil war. Muawiyah established the capital in Damascus where they ruled the for nearly a century. It comes to an end in 750 CE when the Abbasids took control.
Abbasids Period
In the 8th century the Abbasids Caliphate formed in Baghdad after a revolt against the Umayyads. In the 9th century the Fatimid Caliphate, originating in modern Tunisia, wrested control of Egypt from the Abbasids and established a new capital called Al-Qahirah from which modern Cairo takes its name. In 1171 AD the Fatimids gave way to the Ayyubid Caliphate, founded by the famous general of the Crusades, Salah Ad-Din. Through all of these changes in government Egypt remained an important part of the Muslim world. As under Roman and Greek rule, the Nile Valley was of great economic importance as a producer of grain. In addition, under the Fatimid and Ayyubid Caliphates, Egypt and the capital, Cairo, were of great geographic and political importance. The beautiful buildings that still decorate Islamic Cairo are evidence of the wealth and influence that came to Cairo as the capital of the these important governments. During these centuries, the people of Egypt also changed with their government. Gradually Egyptians converted to Islam.
At times the tax burden on non-Muslims was very high, in contrast to the mild treatment of non-Muslims by the Rashiduns, making conversion a practical matter. The rate of conversion increased especially during the Crusades when the conflict between European Christians and the Muslim government increasingly politicized religion; however, it is difficult to say specifically when Islam overtook Christianity as the most common religion in Egypt. After the break down of the Abbasids Period, other islamic took the power such as: Tulunid period, Second Abbasid period and Ikhsidid period, Fatimid period, Ayyubid period, Mamluk Egypt and Bahri dynasty.
Escritura Jeroglífica, Que Es La Más Conocida. Es Fundamentalmente Monumental (Está Asociada A Los Monumentos) Y Se Realiza En Relieve. Va A Tener Una Interpretación Muy Difícil (A Veces Se Lee De Izquierda A Derecha Y Otras Veces De Modo Contrario, Etc.).
Escritura Hierática, Que Es Una Escritura Cursiva, Abreviada De La Anterior, Más Usada En La Vida Común. Aparece En Los Textos.
Escritura Demótica, Que Es Más Rápida Y Más Popular. Es La Que Aparece Más Tardíamente Y Es La Que Se Usa En Egipto Hasta La Invasión Romana.
La Escritura Ha Sido Un Instrumento Fundamental Para El Conocimiento De Egipto. No Es Hasta El Siglo Xix Cuando Se Empieza A descifrar, A Partir De La Invasión De Napoleón, Que trajo con el Algunos Sabios Franceses, Entre Los Que Cabe Destacar A Denon (Un Grabador Que Hace Una Obra Ilustrada De Egipto, Que Va A Ser Punto De Arranque De La Egiptología).
También Fue Fundamental Para El Conocimiento De La Cultura Egipcia La Aparición De La Piedra Rosetta, Ciudad Cercana A La Desembocadura Del Nilo, Y Es Una Piedra De Basalto Que Tiene Una Inscripción Trilingüe, En Egipcio Jeroglífico, Griego Y Egipcio Demótico, Que Reproduce Un Decreto De Ptolomeo V Y Que Fue Interpretada Por Champolion En 1822. Otro Hecho Fundamental Para El Conocimiento De La Cultura Egipcia Fue La Abertura De La Primera Tumba intacta En 1923, La De Tutankamón, Por Carter Y Carnavon, Así Como Las Cientos De Excavaciones Que Se Realizan A Partir De Estos Momentos.
Los Pueblos Que Viven En Egipto Son De Origen Cemita. Se Trata De Hombres Altos, De Hombros Anchos Y Con Algunos Rasgos Negroides. Estos Pueblos Se Asientan Y Se Organizan En Nomos O Cantones Independientes, Dirigidos Por Reyes Sacerdotes.
Entre Ellos Hay Momentos De Lucha Y Se Van A Ir Configurando En Dos Zonas, Las Llamadas Las Dos Tierras:
Reino De Butto, Está Situado Al Norte De Egipto, Es El Bajo Egipto. Se Dedica A La Agricultura Y Al Comercio Y Su Distintivo Es Una Corona Truncada Y Roja Que Está Adornada Con La Cobra O Ureus.
Reino De Nejeb O Nekhen, Está En El Sur De Egipto, Es El Alto Egipto. Se Dedica A La Ganadería Y Es Un Pueblo Más Belicoso. Su Distintivo Es Una Corona Blanca Y Alta Coronada Por Un Buitre.
Estos Dos Animales Son Sagrados Y Protectores De Los Egipcios. Hay Un Momento En El Que Los Dos Reinos Se Van A Fundir, Y Con Esta Fusión Termina El Periodo Predinástico. Esta Fusión Es Debida Al Rey Menes, Y A Partir De Este Momento Al Rey Se Le Va A Conocer Como "Señor De Las Dos Tierras".
La Cronología De Egipto Es Muy Complicada Y No Siempre Coinciden Todos Los Historiadores En Ella. Se Suele Partir De La Cronología Que Elaboró El Sacerdote Egipcio Del Siglo 3 A.C. Manetón En La Historia De Egipto Que Redactó Para Ptolomeo 2. Esta Obra Estuvo Durante Mucho Tiempo En La Biblioteca De Alejandría, Pero Se Perdió Con El Incendio Que Destruyó Ésta En El 49 A.C., Aunque Tanto Su Cronología Como Sus Apuntes Se Han Transmitido.